Learning as a social and collaborative process

Reinforcing the idea of mutuality is the idea of learning as a social process. The idea of learning as a social and collaborative process sits strangely on our traditionally competitive Western education system, with its emphasis on detachment and distance. When the social context of learning is recognized, and collaboration is valued rather than penalized, the significance of relationship in learning makes sense, prioritizing involvement and connection, nurturing joint endeavours and stimulating the creativity of constructed knowledge.

Relationship in traditional adult education and learning has emphasized separateness and isolation, causing learners to be ‘estranged’ from each other, their teacher, and the material ideas they seek to learn about (Radley, 1980: 34). As non-participants in the process, learners have been presented with their subject as the teacher’s ‘product’, often an alien ‘buffet of ideas’ (Radley, 1980: 40) and quite foreign to the student learner.

When relationship replaces estrangement, and learning is recognized as having implications in the realm of ideas, values, social interests and assumptions, then learning becomes ‘the expression of a social system… which is grounded in the ways in which student and teacher together work with their material’ (Radley, 1980: 36), suggesting connection between facilitator and learner and, we would add, learner and learner.

Belenky et al (1986) differentiate connected learning from separated knowing with reference to the deep relationships that characterize the former (1986: 115) in contrast to the detachment of the latter. Connected learning recognizes the significance of relationship as learners jointly construct knowledge for themselves and each other.

The learner as a model of ‘abundance’ rather than ‘deficiency’
Implied from what has been stated so far is the idea of individuals being resources of abundance that can be drawn upon to further learning. This is in contrast to the deficiency model of the individual being an ‘empty bucket to be filled’. The former model begins with an openness to abundance, an assumption that the learner already possesses in abundance what is needed for learning. In this model, given the opportunity, space and encouragement, learning will happen.

Thus in action learning set members bring their whole experience to the set as a resource to be applied to the issue presented by the presenting set member. Belenky et al (1986: 190ff) contrast stances taken by two college professors and their impact via stories told by two women who had each experienced one of the professors. The first professor, introducing a science class, asked the students to guess how many beans a jar contained. After a host of inaccurate answers he gave the ‘right’ answer and added: ‘You have just learned an important lesson about science.

Never trust the evidence of your own senses.’ The effect destroyed the confidence of the student who left and did not return to science for years, having had her notion of first-hand experience trashed. In the second example a philosophy professor put a cube on the table and asked what it was. In response to its being called a cube, she asked what a cube was. The response brought forth that a cube contained six equal square sides. ‘But how do you know? We can’t exactly see six sides, can we, when we look, yet you know it’s a cube.

You invent the sides you cannot see. You use your intelligence to create the “truth” about cubes.’ The contrast between the approaches of the two professors is interesting. The science professor, in a benign way, wanted to teach students that experience is a source of error. In isolation this had the effect of rendering the student dumb and dependent.

The philosophy student’s lesson was that although raw experience is insufficient, by reflecting upon it the student arrived at a truth. It did not diminish but enhanced her self-esteem and built upon her lived experience. The latter is the basis of action learning from the outset, that a set member is resourceful rather than resource empty; abundant rather than deficient. An action learning set unlocks (and sometimes unblocks) the experience that people bring with them. In addition, a set will also surface prior tacit learning.
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Teacher guide : Stories for learning

Knowing how the student’s brain is set off firing means knowing how to organize material to move it from short-term to long-term memory. What we tend to forget as faculty caught up in teaching requirements is that for the students to remember the material they need to map it into their brains. For their maps to be produced, we need to go beyond the Idea to the emotions. We need to capture their values—so, we need a story.

One famous professor of philosophy at NYU begins or ends every class with a story. The subject of the story might be his family or his life, but there is at heart a clear ethical dilemma that reinforces the day’s material. A fi nance professor illustrates concepts with his children’s activities. For example, he tells how his daughter persuades her younger brother how he might apportion his allowance or his candy to her benefi t in what became a net present value example.

Stories help memory. They give the students a context for their more esoteric course material. They anchor theory in concrete, visual detail, and they change the language of the course. It engages the students. Once listeners hear the narrative structure begin, they are eager to hear what happens next.

The story can open a door for students into the lives of their professors while still making a relevant learning point. Holding out your life to students through a story touches all their senses as well as reinforcing memory through chronology and language. More than a few neurons are fi ring. From there the student can make associations to the lecture that could not be made from an idea or the facts on a PowerPoint slide.

Keeping the students energized
We know that the middle portion of any speech or lecture or class of any length is where attention is at its lowest. The student is most passive. We know we all suffer from a form of attention deficit. My estimate is seven minutes on average is all we can count on for focused attention. Many tricks allow us to work against
these habits. Sharpening our awareness of timing as a tool to create and use energy will help shape structure of our lessons.

Thinking about where the action is located and the kind of learning students are being asked to do will keep the class energized and the professor, too. Shift the learning from the podium to the class and back again. And remember that some play-acting helps. In acting, we learn that energy and enthusiasm can be created by deciding to be energetic and enthusiastic. By our own presence, even following the lead of the learner, we can keep the energy level of the student higher.

Eye contact
How do we follow the lead of the learner? This fi rst rule for following the learner is to see the individual student—‘eyeball-to-eyeball’. This eye contact brings the professor in touch with the student and the student in touch with the professor. You are making an emotional connection. One prominent researcher at a business school who consistently received poor student evaluations was often told by his students on the evaluation sheets that he did not care about the students. They said other things as well, but the reaction was emotional and negative. He did care. He spent many hours preparing. The students made comments about his being knowledgeable and that he was a productive researcher; they recognized his scholarship.

They just did not realize that he wanted to be in communication with them. When he invited me to consult with him, I attended his class after our interview , I was astounded to note that after 20 years’ teaching, he was not making eye contact with his students. He never looked at them directly. He was turning his head, glancing in the direction of his students, but never actually looking into their eyes or really seeing them.

When the speaker does not see his audience, the audience, without every effort, will involuntarily turn off. This will often take a physical turn: going to sleep, getting restless, or other physical responses to boredom. What interests me is the emotion aroused by it—the angry response. Notice this in yourself when you fi nd yourself listening to a knowledgeable speaker on a topic you espouse interest in, yet fi nd that you cannot pay complete attention; observe the speaker’s eye contact. You may fi nd that the speaker is not really looking at any individual in the audience. This is true of an audience of any size: in rooms of two hundred, if the speaker makes eye contact with a single member of the audience in every section of the room, then all members of the audience will feel that they are being seen as well.


The professor derives many benefi ts of eye contact: losing self-consciousness, and gaining sustained feedback. Against our intuition, sustained eye contact reduces performance nerves. As important as helping with performance nerves, it provides a feedback mechanism, for example, for pace, volume, and variety.

Feedback from eye contact, careful observation, informs the professor of content issues. The feedback indicates whether a concept was sufficiently explained, or whether the students are tuned out or turned off, whether it is time to move on, ‘they’ve got it’, or whether this is really important and they are not quite getting it: say more about that. The feedback loop needs to be completed; during a lecture eye contact is crucial.

In one class I observed, the professor made eye contact with the PowerPoint slides, her computer and then, lastly, the class. The attention of the students flagged, energy in the class was fl at, distracted. The more she talked while looking away from them, the more the students had to fight to keep engaged. When she began to focus more on them, she realized that the students were getting only about half of the lecture, if that much. Their feedback signaled their confusion. She began to offer examples, practice sessions, illustrative cases, and so on. In short, she began to teach.

For the student, it assures them that their performance is being observed—the professor is audience for their work. They learn from the professor what it is like to have objective and constructive feedback on their work. We know from playing with our children and from observing their play how much influence is gained from simply being present to them. Eventually, through time in class and time in profession, the students will evolve their own feedback mechanisms. Until then, the professor as witness and model helps them learn to reflect on their learning.

As these examples indicate, eye contact offers much more than might fi rst appear. For the younger student, needing a relationship with the professor is more obvious, but it is no less significant to the older student. Our progress in the course depends upon it. I am not ignoring the skills of the self-directed learner, the learners who know how to do the work regardless of the teaching. These students are always there, but as we know, learning is much more than just hearing and recalling facts. Eye contact is critical, specifically, for moving forward into practice and application, and supportive connection. It also should be a reminder that learning begins with the emotions, our motor skills are close to our emotional center in the brain, the root of emotion comes from motion, ‘e-motion’.
Read More : Teacher guide : Stories for learning

HOW GAMES BRING LEARNING TO YOUR CLASSROOM

Games deliver a welcome variation to the tell-and-test classroom format. The games in this blog will make your lessons more enticing and motivate your students to learn more and, more important, enjoy learning more. These games can be adapted very easily to most themes and subjects that your school’s curriculum has outlined.

As an educator, you have goals for yourself, to tap into each child’s zone where he gets excited about learning and has continued moments of success that drive him to undertake further challenges. Students have goals for themselves, too—they want to succeed, they want to do well in school, and they want to learn the best they can.
Games help satisfy everyone’s goals. They keep the curriculum fresh and interesting, which is key to motivating future learning. Here are fourteen ways games bring your curriculum to your audience:
1. Games are experiential. Today’s student needs to do and to try things on her own. These games bring her into direct contact with the topic; she will actively interact with your information wrapped in a game. Games also allow you to observe her realtime behavior.

2. Games allow special tutoring for one or two. On occasion you need to work with only one or two students. Games can be customized with almost any topic and used in the home or classroom for special tutoring sessions. You will find additional tips on how to use each game in this book in the “Teacher’s Notes”
and “Customizing” sections.

3. Games provide choices for your classroom. Educators sometimes feel weighed down by assigned curricula and audiences. Games allow you to add variety and flexibility to your teaching menus. Here is a brief list of your classroom choices with games:
• In-chair or out-of-chair play
• Table, floor, or wall play
• In-class or learning center activities
• Small- or large-group play
• Teacher or student scoring
• In-class or take-home assignments
• Individual or team play
• Introduction or review of material
• Open-book or closed-book play
• Inside or outside play

4. Games reinforce learning. Games give you playful ways to present and represent material to your students. During this play, your students can practice and demonstrate what they have learned from lecture and readings.

5. Games provide immediate feedback. Students want and need feedback on their performance. Games give students immediate feedback on the quality of their input—with appropriate corrective feedback. This can become an invaluable learning opportunity.

6. Games improve test-taking skills. Because of the playful challenge inherent in them, games serve as excellent practice for test taking. They expose students to a variety of question areas and formats, and postgame discussion can focus on testtaking tips from both the teacher and fellow students.

7. Game playing shows that classroom energy is good. Sometimes the educator has to deal with the energy that children bring into the classroom. Using games reinforces the concept that energy is a good thing and that the classroom is a good place to expend energy. In addition, games can bring students’ focus back to the curriculum following active play periods such as recess.

8. Games can introduce new or difficult material. Games have an unparalleled facility to introduce new or difficult material to willing participants. Because the game format is playful, the inherent challenge of new or difficult material is much less threatening than it is ordinarily. During game play the seeming unsolvable question is “just part of the game.” And educators can use the window following a correct response to successfully introduce new information. One method, for example, is to give an in-class assignment on a new reading.
After ten minutes of individual work, bring students into small groups to share their understanding of the material.

9. Games complement reading assignments. Games work very well to complement in-class or at-home reading. Use game sheets as homework guides or use in-class question-and answer sheets.

10. Games improve teamwork. Because games are real-time activities that bring students into teams, they train students in the rules of working together as a team and underscore the value of team collaboration.

11. Games teach playing within the rules. Games continually reinforce the concept that the only way to win is to play within the rules. If an instance of “fair play” or “cheating” is aired, the postgame discussion can deal with issues of cooperation and honesty.

12. Games foster both individual and team achievement. Games underscore the importance of both the individual and the team by giving the student a chance to work alone and then adding the dimension of bringing him into a small group to share ideas.

13. Games reinforce and improve multitasking. Games allow students, individually or in groups, to experience and practice multiskill tasks, such as bouncing a balloon while responding to a series of questions. The pressure created by game play helps build problem-solving skills and promotes creativity.

14. Games can replace drill work. Games can replace the dreaded memorization work required in learning multiplication tables, spelling, and the like. The required repetition can be carried out in a game format. When the students’ attention is focused on the play of the game, memorization becomes less of a chore.
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THE ROLE OF PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING IN THE READING DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS

English Language Learners (ELL)
Children who are raised in homes where English is not the first language and/or standard English is not spoken may have difficulty with hearing the difference between similar sounding words like “send” and “sent.” Any child who is not in a home, day care, or preschool environment where English phonology operates may have difficulty perceiving and demonstrating the differences between English language phonemes. In other words, their phoneme awareness in terms of the English language will be poor. If children cannot hear the difference
between words that sound the same like “grow” and “glow,” they will be confused when these words appear in a print context. This confusion is likely to impact their comprehension.

Considerations for teaching phonological processing to ELL children include recognition by the teacher that what works for the English language speaking child from an English language speaking family does not necessarily work with students who speak other primary languages.

Research recommends that ELL children initially learn to read in their first language. It has also been found that a priority for ELL should be learning to speak English before being taught to read English. Research supports oral language development, since it lays the foundation for phonological awareness.

All phonological instruction programs must be tailored to the children’s learning backgrounds. Rhymes and alliteration introduced to ELL children should be read or shared with them in their first language, if possible. If you do not speak the student’s first language, get a paraprofessional or pull out an ELL educator to support your instruction in the first language.


Struggling Readers
Among the causes that make reading a struggle for some children (and adults) is auditory trauma or ear infections that affect the ability to hear speech. Such children need one-on-one support with articulation and perception of different sounds. When a child says a word such as “parrot” incorrectly, repeat it back as
a question with the correct pronunciation of the sounds. If the child “gets” the sound correctly after your question, this type of extra support was all that was needed. If the child still has difficulty with pronunciation, it may be necessary to consult with a speech therapist or audiologist. Early identification of medical conditions that affect hearing is crucial to reading development. Therefore, as an educator, you need to make the time to sit with struggling readers and play games such as “same or different” in order to identify those children who may be struggling due to a hearing difficulty.

The most common characteristic among children with language learning disabilities that produce delays in learning to read is weakness in either phonological or phonemic awareness. Many students with reading disabilities will have been diagnosed with some form of Dyslexia. Dyslexia is a language learning disorder that is often based on difficulties with phonological awareness and processing. Common symptoms included difficulty decoding words, poor fluency, poor writing and spelling, and sometimes comprehension difficulties, as well. These difficulties are present in spite of normal intelligence and instructional methods. Pierangelo & Giuliani (2007) describe a variety of types of Dyslexia cited by and most of them have phonemic or phonological weakness as one significant component.
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Learning Outcomes With Game Teaching Approach

Games can reinforce many different behavioral and learning outcomes.  Your learning outcome can vary from the reinforcement of the topic to the demonstration of how to participate in a working group. It is important to establish a set of learning objectives  what you want the participants to learn or demonstrate during and after playing the game. Then you can evaluate how the game met your expectations.

Games are excellent vehicles for learners to demonstrate the following skills and abilities, all within the friendly and competitive game environment:
• Understanding of the concepts of rules, cooperative play, and winning and losing.
• Understanding of the classroom material.
• Application of concepts and principles found in the classroom material.
• Problem solving and strategizing.

PLAYING TIME
Time of play is always a critical issue. Game play represents only part of the total classroom time required. The total learning experience is a three-part process of setup, game play, and closure.
• Setup time: approximately 20 percent of total. During this time, you establish the game environment by preparing the room, distributing game materials, dividing learners into teams, and reviewing the rules of play.
• Game playing time: approximately 60 percent of total. This is the actual playing of the game, including the start and stop of game play, clarifying questions about rules or content, validation and elaboration of correct responses, and declaring winners.

Closure time: approximately 20 percent of total. This portion of the time is for processing game content and player conduct. During this time the teacher brings the class “back to the classroom” and revisits the learning concepts covered during game play.

Teachers must plan for a total learning experience, considering several factors including the complexity of the topic, time required for setup and closure, time of day, and even the attention span of the participants. Because of these factors, all the games in this book are designed to be played in fifty minutes or less. Of course, if you find that a game generates a highly motivating environment, you may extend the time of play by conducting additional rounds or adding supplemental questions or tasks.

THE WHOLE COURSE GAME
When a particular game proves both popular and effective, consider reusing it as appropriate throughout the entire school semester or year. This whole course technique allows you to reintroduce a game experience that is familiar to both student and teacher. Advantages of a whole course game are ;
• Immediate acceptance of a game format that has already proven successful in reinforcing learning or behavior outcomes.
• Familiarity with the rules and roles involved in game play.
• Immediate focus on content in the form of game questions and situations.
• Readily available game accessories from previous play and easier setup for game play.
• Ease of updating to match your current curriculum requirements.
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Teacher as Facilitator of Learning

As we know, learning takes place when students create their own meanings. As John Dewey stated, ‘... no thought, no idea, can possibly be conveyed as an idea from one person to another. When it is told, it is, to the one to whom it is told, another given fact, not an idea.’ Students must wrestle with the facts and conditions to make them their own ideas. Therefore, the role of the teacher is to help students make content memorable and meaningful for themselves.

The intellectual origins of this approach are from such sources as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and David Kolb who were astoundingly prescient about the current research on learning and the brain. To fully disclose perspectives and practices, my years as a student of theatre and communication led to bringing theatre practices and experiential exercises to work with faculty and MBA students.

Finally, the foundation for facilitating learning is connection between student and professor. How else to make the classroom a ‘safe container’ for students to participate fully in their own learning except through connection?

Beginnings
Beginning at the beginning: the professor walks into the classroom, puts down her books, turns on the overhead projector and plugs in her computer. She pulls up the day’s agenda on the first page of her slides. At the top of the slide is a welcome to the class, instructions to sit with study teams, and a quote to alert them to today’s theme when they come in. She has answered their fi rst question: ‘What are we doing today?’ They come from another class, or from their jobs. Sometime in the last 48 hours, 90 per cent of the students prepared for today’s class. They turned to the assignment—read the case; prepared the problem set, and so on—and then once completed, set it aside. It is then wiped out of conscious memory, replaced by more immediate and ‘real’ demands of other courses, of work, friends and family. Now as they enter the class, reminded of homework, they retrieve it and hand it in without any thought to today’s lecture. The professor, on the other hand, is full of her topic. She has probably spent the last 30 minutes reviewing what took three to six hours to prepare. She turns away from the side of the classroom where she was chatting about an article she saw today on an employer of interest to two students who came in early.
(A colleague notes that he fi nds a ‘gift’ for his class almost every day in the news.)

How does our professor begin? The beginning is the most critical moment in the classroom. The students’ minds are fresh, relatively open, and willing to tune in. And creating a strong and early emotional connection is crucial—you want to awaken the students and their brains!
For example, one renowned professor at NYU Stern, Economist Robert Kavesh, uses a poem at the beginning of each class.

As she moves into the center, she senses that the class is relaxed and present. She waits in silence for fi ve to seven seconds while making eye contact with someone in each section of the class. The class is in session. Without a word to the class, she has established control. She opens with a provocative statement about her topic, and then she reviews today’s agenda and delivers the punchline: ‘By the end of class today, you will know ___; you will be able to do ___; you will feel ___ about this subject.’ The objectives have been established to anchor today’s work.

She began with the end in mind. By providing a proper frame for the course, the day, and the hour, she ensures that the students will be receptive to what she has to say. All this has been achieved through the use of space, timing, media (blackboard, PowerPoint slides, or an overhead) and the physical presence of the professor. We lead the class in response to our own and our students’ expectations about what should occur: the shape of the class, the structure of course material, and the timing of all elements within today’s context and the trajectory of the course. By remaining aware of these rhetorical elements to make conscious
our choices and our students’ needs, we can do more to manage expectations. We are balancing
the rhetorical decisions with the cognitive and physical needs of our audience.
To begin, the professor should answer the fi rst fi ve critical questions in the minds of every
audience during the introduction:
1. What’s the topic?
2. What’s your position on it?
3. Why is it relevant to me?
4. Why is it urgent?
5. Who are you to tell me this?

The answers to these questions convey more than the topic, they inform the listener of your perspective and your claim to authority. This opening declares what is at stake for both the professor and the student by citing relevancy and urgency for the listener. Now the student can engage with the problem by making associations with what they already know or believe about the topic. Then they can settle down to listen—perhaps suspending skepticism—but, one hopes, remaining open-minded enough to listen.

Such an opening makes the most of the high levels of attention at the beginning of a session. Attention is at its highest level within the first three to five minutes of class. The audience ‘attention curve’ shows us that the highest levels of attention occur at the beginning and at the end of a lecture. Making the most of that few minutes of fullest attention will help the student to organize and retrieve material later, moving it from short-term to long-term memory. For this reason and some other important ones, an indirect structure should be used sparingly. The deductive structure can be very useful to approach parts of the topic, but for the class as a whole, deliver the punchline at the beginning. Stating the objective upfront will enhance the student’s ability to follow your logic and your thinking while making associations vital to their own.
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The locus of learning

Learning is physical and mental. The student needs to be active. Learning is connected to motion. The parts of the brain that coordinate physical movement also coordinate the movement of thought. When I fi rst read this, I thought about where action occurs in a classroom. Often, the action occurs on the dais, or that two foot ‘stage’ in front of the blackboard. The professor and the professor’s media are the center of attention, shaping the flow and delivering the talk. One consultant calls this the ‘me and my fl ip-chart syndrome’. Some people refer to the teacher as actor. In fact, in traditional theatre, action occurs on stage within and behind the proscenium arch. The actors may look out beyond the ‘fourth wall’ into the audience, but the ‘action’ takes place on stage. The audience observing the scene may imaginatively project themselves into the scene and identify with the characters, but the ‘locus’ of the action is on stage. The playwright, the director and the actors control the scene.

If a lecture is about you and your PowerPoint slides, you control the scene. We are often tempted to treat the structure of the class as a drama: we lead the student audience along with us in a kind of treasure hunt, keeping the prize to ourselves until the end. It lends suspense and builds up tension, involving the students in a guessing game, playing them along. My sense is that often this style is unconscious rather than on purpose. For example, I have observed case classes where the professors’ questions lead through their logic. The questions
are designed to elicit certain answers to lead toward the professor’s big surprise at the end, often a kind of ‘gotcha’, designed to show the professor’s superior knowledge. The students are at best involved in a question and answer format and, at worst, involved in guessing what is in the professor’s mind. The result of that experience is that the students are getting a fill in- the-blanks lecture. It tests their preparation and offers a type of modeling of thinking and a rehearsal of material. But is it an effective method to develop students’ critical thinking? Retaining control of pacing and logic privileges the professor’s thinking rather than the students’ thinking. We reinforce the passive role of student. Not only is the whole constrained by their ability to guess answers, the student who is not inclined to think like the professor is often frustrated.

On this end of the spectrum, the professor controls the material and invites the student to follow along with them as they present material in a lecture. We know that there are advantages to lecturing: basically, the lecture format is most useful to the student when the professor can link disparate source material and/or present material that is new, too new to be readily available in their readings. The skillful lecturer creates the allusion that you are thinking along with them—and learning how to think like the expert is one of the major lessons. The locus of learning is on the ‘stage’ controlled by the professor.


Somewhere in the middle spectrum is a case presentation. At the other end of the spectrum, the student controls the material. In the facilitated class, the action moves out into the classroom with students. For example, in one kind of active learning, the student solves the problem either alone or in a group and teaches it to others. Here learning occurs in the control of the students.

Ideally, the more neurons fi re within the students’ heads and within connection with the professor where there is a mutual creation of energy, a mutual exchange, the deeper and richer the possibilities. In the media lab at MIT, the researchers hook up electrodes to the heads of audience members to test the ‘credibility of the speaker’. They find that when the speaker is more credible is when the whole parts of the audience’s brains are firing. Literally, we talk about connection and how that is discharged by our ability to provoke sparks in
the audience. By making the students a part of the field of energy, as it were, through eye contact and the physical focus caused by your stance and relationship to the students, you will change the locus of learning from you to the students. Move the locus of learning into the ‘audience’.

‘Following the lead of the learner’ is a phrase created by faculty attending an international business school seminar on teaching. While observing other professors teach in the ITP—they themselves having returned to the classroom as ‘students’ for this seminar—and from talking about and researching teaching, these business faculty came to the conclusion that enabling learning requires following the learner—in other words, knowing what the learner needs to learn. To be at the head of that class, we are more than the presenters of content, we are the keepers of the process that follows the lead of the learners as well. To touch that edge means
reaching out to the learner.
Read More : The locus of learning