Which Colleges Offer Early Admission Programs?

Early admissions is a complex and constantly changing game. In recent years the cast of characters has grown significantly, with more and more colleges entering the competition for the best students. But still the true rules of applying early are rarely known to students and their parents. In the interest of leveling the playing field, we devote this article to uncovering the mystery of early admissions.

Five major points emerge here and are furtherelaborated in the chapters that follow:

1. Elite private colleges overwhelmingly employ early admissions programs.
2. The system is confusing because the rules and deadlines differ from college to college.
3. Students from advantaged backgrounds are the most likely to apply early.
4. Most early programs are of modest size, but many are substantial, and some have even grown to the point that they leave relatively few spots in the class for regular applicants.
5. Almost every college with an early program admits a higher proportion of early applicants than of regular applicants. At many colleges this creates a concern about the availability of regular admissions slots.

Which Colleges Offer Early Programs?
Currently, only one-third of all four-year colleges in the United States offer early admissions programs.1 Yet almost all of the most selective private colleges have such programs. (This figure measures selectivity using the average SAT scores of current students. Other measures of selectivity, such as the U.S. News rankings, produce a similar pattern—the higher the ranking, the more likely that the college is to offer an early program.)
Almost all colleges offer one of two early admissions programs:
Early Action (EA) or Early Decision (ED). Early Decision, which requires early applicants to commit to enrolling if admitted, predominates at the most selective colleges. Early Action, which allows early applicants to apply and enroll at other colleges in the regular process, is most common at the least selective colleges. A small number of colleges offer both programs.

Public colleges, which primarily cater to in-state students, usually at dramatically reduced tuition, operate in a less competitive environment than do private schools, with strong built-in demand. Their natural response is to adopt admissions practices that are different from those of their private counterparts. For instance, a survey conducted by the National Association for College Admissions Counselors in 2001–02 found that private institutions were about three times as likely as public institutions to offer early admissions programs.

Many public institutions offer rolling admissions programs and publish standard admissions criteria based on thresholds for grade-point average and SAT scores. For students who meet these criteria, the admission thresholds serve as a form of Early Action they guarantee admission before the regular application deadlines.

The public institutions that offer early admissions tend to offer Early Action, and some of these programs are quite extensive. The few public institutions that offer Early Decision tend to be the socalled public Ivies that compete for top students nationally, such as the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the University of
Virginia, and William and Mary.

The policies of most colleges are relatively stable, though some add or change an early admissions program each year. For example, among the “Top 50 Universities” and “Top 50 Liberal Arts Colleges” named by U.S. News, only four changed the status of their early programs from 1997–98 to 1998–99, and each of these four colleges simply added either Early Action or Early Decision in 1998–99 to complement an existing program.
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TOEFL Program

What is the purpose of the TOEFL?
Since 1963, the TOEFL has been used by scholarship selection committees of governments, universities, and agencies such as Fulbright, the Agency for International Development, AMIDEAST, Latin American Scholarship Programs, and others as a standard measure of the English proficiency of their candidates. Some professional licensing and certification agencies also use TOEFL scores to evaluate English proficiency.

The admissions committees of more than 4,400 colleges and universities in the United States, Canada, and many other countries worldwide require foreign applicants to submit TOEFL scores along with transcripts and recommendations in order to be considered for admission. Many universities use TOEFL scores to fulfill the foreign language requirement for doctoral candidates whose first language is not English.

Which TOEFL testing programs are available now?
The official TOEFL examination is currently administered at test sites around the world in three different formats: the Paper-Based TOEFL (PBT), the Computer-Based TOEFL (CBT), and the Next Generation TOEFL. The language proficiency skills are tested on every format, but they are tested in different ways.

In addition to the official TOEFL administrations, some schools and agencies administer the institutional TOEFL for their students and employees. The institutional TOEFL is usually the Paper-Based format.

What is the Computer-Based TOEFL program?
The CBT is a computer-adaptive test that is offered as an official standard for language proficiency worldwide. The CBT is also called the Official TOEFL.
The Computer-Based TOEFL has four sections: Listening, Structure, Writing, and Reading. The Writing is equivalent to the Test of Written English (TWE) on the Paper-Based TOEFL. The CBT is an adaptive test, which means that everyone who takes the TOEFL during the same administration may not see and answer the same questions. The computer selects questions for you at your level of proficiency. There are three subscores-Listening, StructureNVriting, and Reading. The total score is based on a scale of 0-300.

What is the Paper-Based TOEFL?
The PBT is a pencil and paper test that is offered for two purposes. One purpose of the PBT is for placement and progress evaluations. Colleges or other institutions use the PBT to test their students. The scores are not valid outside the place where they are administered, but the college or institution accepts the PBT that they administer as an official score. This PBT is also called an Institutional TOEFL.

The other purpose of the PBT is to supplement the official Computer-Based TOEFL in areas where computer-based testing is not possible. The scores are usually valid outside the place where they are administered. This PBT is also called a Supplemental TOEFL.

The Paper-Based TOEFL has three sections: Listening Comprehension, Structure and Written Expression, and Reading. In addition, the TWE is a required essay that provides a writing score. The PBT is a linear test, which means that everyone who takes the TOEFL during the same administration will see and answer the same questions. The total score is based on a scale of 310-677.

What is the Next Generation TOEFL?
The Next Generation TOEFL is a computer-assisted test that will be introduced in September 2005 worldwide. The Next Generation TOEFL has four sections: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing.
The Speaking Section was already introduced in 2003 as the TOEFL Academic Speaking Test (TAST)
and can be taken and scored without the other sections. On the four-part Next Generation TOEFL, most
of the questions are independent, but some of the questions are integrated. For example, you may be
asked to listen to a lecture or read a text and then speak about it or write a response. The total score will
probably be based on a scale of 0-100.

What is the lnstitutional TOEFL program?
More than 1,200 schools, colleges, universities, and private agencies administer the lnstitutional TOEFL. The lnstitutional TOEFL is the same length, format, and difficulty as the official Paper-Based TOEFL, but the dates and the purposes of the lnstitutional TOEFL are different from those of the official TOEFL.

The dates for the lnstitutional TOEFL usually correspond to the beginning of an academic session
on a college or university calendar. The lnstitutional TOEFL is used for admission, placement, eligibility,
or employment only at the school or agency that offers the test. If you plan to use your scores for a different
college, university, or agency, you should take one of the official TOEFL tests. For more information
about the lnstitutional TOEFL Program, contact the school or agency that administers the test.
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Research on Effective Programs

As the case of Mr. Harris illustrates, no theory, no research, no book can tell teachers what to do in a given situation. Malzing the right decisions depends on the context within which the problem arises, the objectives the teacher has in mind, and many other factors, all of which must be assessed in the light of educated common sense. For example, research in mathematics instruction usually finds that a rapid pace of instruction increases achievement (Good, Grouws, & Ebmeier, 198 3).

Yet a teacher may quite legitimately slow down and spend a lot of time on a concept that is particularly critical or may let students tale time to discover a mathematical principle on their own. It is usually much more efficient (that is, it talzes less time) to teach students slzills or information directly than it is to let them inalze discoveries for themselves; but if the teacher wants students to gain a deeper understanding of a topic or to laow how to find information or figure things out for themselves, then the research findings about pace can be temporarily shelved. The point is that while research in educational psychology can sometimes be translated hrectly to the classroom, it is best to apply the principles with a hefty dose of common sense and a clear view of what is being taught to whom and for what purpose.

Research on Effective Programs
Research in educational psychology not only provides evidence for principles of effective practice, but it also provides evidence about the effectiveness of particular programs or practices (Rhine, 1998). For example, in the vignette at the beginning of this chapter, Leah Washington was using a specific approach to creative writing instruction that has been extensively evaluated as a whole (Hillocks, 1984). In other words, there is evidence that, on average, children whose teachers are using such methods learn to write better than those whose teachers use more traditional approaches.

There is evidence on the effectiveness of dozens of widely used programs, from methods in particular subjects to strategies for reforming entire schools (see, for example, Ellis, 2001; Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 2003; Slavin & Fashola, 1998). An intentional teacher should be aware of research on programs for his or her subject and grade level, and should seek out professional development opportunities to learn methods laown to make a difference for children.

Impact of Research on Educational Practice
Many researchers and educators have bemoaned the limited impact of research in educational psychology on teachers' practices (see, for example, Hargreaves, 1996; ICennedy, 1997). Indeed, research in educatioil has nowhere near as great an impact on practice as research in medicine or agriculture or engineering (Gage, 1994). Yet research in education does have a profound indirect impact on educational practice (Hattie & Marsh, 1996), even if teachers are not aware of it. It affects educational policies, professional development programs, and teaching materials. For example, the Tentlessee class size study (Achilles, Finn, & Bain, 1997/98; Finn & Achilles, 1999; Finn, Pannazzo, & Aclulles, 2003), which found important effects of class size in the early grades on student achievement, had a direct impact on state and federal proposals for class size reduction (Finn, 2002; Wasley, 2002).

Recent research on beginning reading (National Academy of Sciences, 1998) has begun to dramatically transform curriculum, instruction, and professional development for this subject. Research on the effects of career academies in high schools (ICemple, 1997) has led to a substantial increase in such programs. It is important for educators to become intelligent consumers of research, not to take every finding or every expert's pronouncement as truth from Mount Olympus. The following section briefly describes the methods of research that most often produce findings of use to educators.
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Key Dimensions Of Variation MBA Programme

The first questions managers wondering whether to join a Master’s programme tend to ask are:
■ How long will it take?
■ How much will it cost?
■ Will I get a place?
■ Will I be able to cope?
■ How do employers rate this particular qualification?

While these are extremely important questions, there are others equally important, if slightly less obvious, which should influence your choice. These concern the suitability of the delivery mode to your particular circumstances , the approach to teaching and the focus of the content – how strategic is it, how international, how practically oriented?

Length of programme
Few students can afford the traditional two-year programme, so most full-time courses now take between 12 and 18 months. While some of the reduction in time can be at the expense of vacations and industrial placements (less important for those who already have management experience), some will inevitably be at the expense of learning. For those who can afford it, or have willing sponsors, a two-year programme at a top school is likely to offer significantly more learning than a shorter programme.

Part-time programmes are designed to spread study over a longer period. The duration will depend upon the expected commitment per week. You need to check how many hours you are expected to devote to your studies each week. In choosing a programme you need to think about what time you can commit, and assure yourself that the coverage offered is of sufficient breadth and depth to be useful.

Delivery pattern
Full-time programmes are now in the minority, and there are many variations in ‘parttime’. Traditionally, part-time study involved regular weekly attendance either in the evening or a mix of daytime and evening attendance. This is still widely available. However, because many managers have jobs which do not allow of such regularity, either because of frequent travel or because of irregular working hours, two other variants of part-time study have become common.

The first is the ‘executive’ model, which requires blocks of attendance at perhaps monthly or two-monthly intervals. This is only feasible for managers working in organisations which support this form of development. It has many of the advantages of full-time study – intensity of study, ability to concentrate wholeheartedly on the course, interaction with fellow students, the ability to study overseas for some of the programme, or with managers from other cultures. These are combined with some of the advantages of part-time study – the ability to apply what is learned almost immediately to work, and continuity of employment and salary.

The second variant is distance learning, which removes, or at least greatly reduces, the need to study in a particular place or at any particular time. The flexibility of this mode, the opportunities now offered for electronic interaction, and the lack of any logistical reasons to limit numbers, together with the high quality of the teaching on some distance learning programmes, have made this the dominant method at present. (The
Open University had over 6000 MBA students in its programme during 2003, with nearly half its intake coming from continental Europe or beyond.) You do need to beware, however. The quality of provision varies enormously.


Cost of programme
Costs can vary quite significantly, and are not always fully transparent. The obvious costs to consider are course fees, the cost of travel, accommodation costs, living costs if full-time, the cost of books, PC and any other materials and equipment. You may also need to budget for the cost of getting into the school of your choice. You may need to take the GMAT test (at your own expense), an English language test if you are not a
native speaker, and to travel for interviews. There may be costs for processing your application. There may be examination fees, and perhaps additional costs for studying overseas. You will be able to find information about fees fairly easily from the Internet or one of the MBA guides listed at the end of the chapter, but may need to ask specific questions to elicit the full picture.

As a rough guide to the variation in cost of study in 2007, you could pay in excess of US $120 000 if you include two years’ tuition, living expenses and loss of salary, £30 000 or more for an executive MBA programme, or about £12 000 for a good distance learning programme. The latter two allow you to continue earning so tuition fees are the main cost. Part-time face-to-face courses may cost even less, with a few specialist Master’s courses available from as little as £4500.

You may be lucky enough to persuade your employer to pay your fees and/or allow you time to study. After all, the organisation should benefit considerably from your improved efficiency. If not, it may be possible to obtain a loan to cover your study. A very few scholarships are also available. Business schools, banks and the World Wide Web are the best starting point for up-to-date information on current sources of finance.

Entry requirements
Requirements for entry vary enormously, with the top business schools requiring a high GMAT score (see Further information at the end of the chapter for books and other sources that cover this), together with a strong academic record and evidence of other achievements (as well as the ability to pay high fees). Indeed, there are organisations devoted to helping you (for a fee) make a successful application to one of these
schools. At the other end of the spectrum you may find programmes which will accept you with any class of degree, a professional qualification, or failing that, evidence of management experience. Sometimes this is out of a desire to attract sufficient students to make a programme economically viable, but low entry requirements do not always imply a low standard of teaching.


Three factors allow programmes to be flexible over entry qualifications. The first is that an academic background in management is usually not required. Unlike a Master’s degree in, say, mathematics, where you would be expected to start with a high level of knowledge of the subject, MBA courses assume the general intellectual level of a graduate, but no subject-specific academic knowledge, though the better programmes
will expect substantial management experience. Successful managers are likely to be able to operate at this level, even if for some reason they do not hold a BA or BSc.

Some specialist Master’s programmes will build on a professional qualification in the area, but some require neither prior specialist knowledge nor management experience. The assumption is that this is a good qualification for recent graduates seeking to start their management career in a specific functional area.
Second, there is a different cost to failure on a part-time programme. It would be highly irresponsible to accept someone who was unlikely to succeed on to a full-time programme, particularly if they were giving up their job in order to study. Failure would, for them, be a disaster. For the manager who continues to work while studying, failure may be painful to the ego, but is less catastrophic. Part-time programmes can therefore afford to take risks with students lacking the normal qualifications (though they should make it clear to applicants in this category that they are perceived to be at risk, so that they can decide whether it is a risk they wish to take).

Third, whereas on face-to-face programmes large classes are undesirable, and limits therefore need to be set, the reverse is true of distance learning. The larger the student body, the more likely students are to find others on the programme living near them, and for local tutorial provision to be feasible. Distance learning materials are costly to produce, too, and if the cost can be spread over a larger number of students, fees can be kept lower. Thus, there are good reasons for distance learning programmes in particular to be more relaxed about academic entry requirements.

Many, however, do set entry requirements relating to management experience, particularly for an MBA. This is linked to the shift in emphasis that has taken place in most European programmes. Once an MBA is seen as an active learning process, rather than mere passive absorption of information, then a student needs to have experience of management to gain full benefit. There are still MBAs which do not presume management experience, and more specialist Master’s programmes tend not to require any. If you do not yet meet your preferred institution’s experience requirement, you can either wait until you do, or select a programme elsewhere which is designed not to need it. (I must admit to a preference for the former option. While purely academic study in a management subject can be intellectually challenging, and good preparation for an academic career, there is little to match the excitement of studying a subject you have already lived, in the active learning mode – described later – that this allows.)
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MBA Programme credibility

All of the above factors, and others, will influence the credibility of a particular qualification. Given the diversity of MBA and related Master’s programmes, their different content and the variation in standards expected, concern over ‘whether this Master’s is a good one, which employers will respect’ is justified. In the USA ‘rankings’ of business schools are published by both Business Week and US News and World Report.

Although there are arguments about the validity of the methods used, such rankings are influential. Some European schools feature in such lists, but European listings are more recent, and at present exclude distance learning provision, which is a major shortcoming, since this is the largest sector.

In the USA, business schools also need to gain accreditation. The main body performing this is the AACSB. In the UK, all universities are deemed to be of an acceptable standard, so accreditation has been seen as less important, although nonuniversities will need to have programmes validated. Because of the variability of programmes, accreditation is valued by potential students, and therefore increasingly sought by universities, particularly if they operate outside the UK as well. The bestknown UK body is AMBA. This also accredits some programmes elsewhere in Europe.

AMBA has stringent criteria, and provides networking opportunities and other services to those with an AMBA-approved MBA through an active alumni association.

Accreditation is a developing field within Europe. The US-based AACSB is substantially expanding its operations in Europe. Perhaps in response, the European Foundation for Management Development (Efmd) has launched EQUAL, an international association of quality assessment and accreditation agencies in the field of European management development. EQUAL has developed a European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), which has developed a system of quality benchmarking which can be used for audit, or as a ‘stamp of approval’ through an accreditation process.

In the UK, intending students can gain information about the general credibility of a business school by finding how it scored in the most recent Research Assessment Exercise, and how it was rated in the Higher Education Funding Council’s assessment of teaching. Schools that have received high scores will tend to include this information in publicity material. You need to treat such information with a degree of caution. The
research will not necessarily inform the teaching you receive, although academics may argue strongly to the contrary. And while schools receiving bad teaching assessments are best avoided, given that the assessment teams vary from school to school, and it is difficult therefore to calibrate assessments, the difference between very good and satisfactory ratings may be elusive.

Indeed, you need to use all ‘official’ information about credibility with a degree of caution. A business school with a high US ranking, or a top research ranking, while undoubtedly credible, may still not be the best programme for you. A school with a lower, though still good ranking might offer a programme more suited to your situation, or provide more of the sort of support that you need in order to do well.

Employers, too, may have their own preferences with respect to MBAs. Those which influence sponsoring decisions may be different from those which influence hiring ones. It is impossible to predict what these will be – there is no alternative to doing a little research. In-company values, preferences and prejudices should be fairly easy to elicit. If you are aiming at an eventual job in another organisation or sector you may need to do some investigating for yourself.
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