The following discussion of examples of ICT application in classrooms is organised into three sections. These concern modes of participation, learning processes and learning outcomes.
ICT Modes of Participation
Independent student learning utilising ICT has been an ongoing investigative concern at all three educational levels - primary, secondary, and tertiary. Some studies focus on the effectiveness of particular software programs or web sites on individual student learning. Recently, programs such as Espresso (Watts, Lloyd & Jackson, 2001), Flash (Chan, Hodgkiss & Chan, 2002), kar2ouche (Davies & Birmingham, 2002), WebDeGrator (Sung & Ou, 2002), WEAR (Moundridou & Virvou, 2002), and ActivStats (Morris, Joiner & Scanlon, 2002), and web sites such as Xref (Young & Ramsden, 2002) have been recently described and evaluated. Other studies have concerned the individual knowledge or skill acquisition that ensues as a direct result of the individual activities of the student on the computer (Goodison, 2002; Morris et al., 2002). Still others focus on improved individual outcomes resulting from independent learning via the computer in such diverse disciplines as physics (Tolmie, 2001), spelling (Torgerson & Elbourne, 2002), and history (Hillis, 2002).
Learning also occurs when groups of students use computers. Positive learning outcomes that result from embedded collaborative activities with a computer have been demonstrated in health education (Lockyer, Patterson & Harper, 2001), primary science (Tolmie, Howe, Duchak-Tanner & Rattray, 1999), and secondary science (Chiu, 2002). Chiu (2002) demonstrated that students completing a science report assignment with the support of network technology in a team setting learned as well as those who were in an individual setting. The criterion applied was the acquisition of scientific process skills and the development of positive attitudes toward science and using computers. Chiu (2002) noted, that diffusion of responsibility, also called the ‘free-rider’ effect, often occurs in team learning. Studies regarding gender differences and interactions within a collaborative ICT learning environment and their subsequent impact on learning have likewise been conducted. Tolmie (2001) observed that the female and male students possessed well-established patterns of interaction (or non-interaction) with each other, especially with respect to conflict
management. Volman and van Eck (2001) noted that, in collaborative ICT activities, boys appeared to be more task-oriented while girls were more process-oriented. Individual knowledge acquisition obtained mainly through group use of ICT has also been investigated in conjunction with activity theory models. These provide a language for describing and understanding the changes and difficulties that arise in the development of websites (Issroff & Scanlon, 2002).
Virtual reality (VR) environments also enable collaborative learning. In the last few years, new computer games have emerged that enable people to link up online to game together. This has fostered both co-operative and competitive elements within a strategic context. It may well be the case that online games are more educationally useful than traditional games in which a player competes against the machine only (Griffiths & Davies, 2002). Other examples of online-learning involving social interaction is the creation and use of alternative personae (avatars) in chat rooms (Turkle, 1995), self-expression through the use of text-based communication, and discursive discussion and argument in electronic environments (Wheeler, Waite & Bromfield, 2002). Individual knowledge acquisition obtained mainly through communicating and interacting with others electronically has also been investigated in conjunction with asynchronous text-based communication. Active knowledge generation occurs through informal peer-to-peer discussion between students (Popolov, Callaghan & Luke, 2002).
ICT Learning Processes
Constructivists believe that learning involves constructing knowledge from one’s own experiences rather than directly receiving information from the outside world (Resnick, 1987; Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989; Collins & Green, 1992). Constructivism refers to a learning approach that emphasises the importance of experiential exploratory learning. It evolved from the writings of Piaget and Bruner who together focused on the relevance of direct meaningful knowledge construction through experience of the world (Collins & Green, 1992; Collins et al., 1989). Constructivism dovetails with VR learning environments in a fundamental and significant manner. The learning that occurs in VR is qualitatively experiential and direct. Students explore their environment and construct meaningful knowledge acquired from the virtual environment (Cronin, 1997). Hence, students can determine the extent to which ICT enhances or detracts from learning and how computers enhance the quality of learning (Goodison, 2002). ICT-mediated communication contributes to the cognitive development of students by stimulating them to articulate ideas, ask questions, participate in discussion and work together, and receive feedback on their ideas from their classmates (Harasim, 1996). This fosters the active construction of knowledge and promotes the development of knowledge from other perspectives (Volman & van Eck, 2001).
Problem solving may be observed in a variety of online activities including behaviour resulting from lateral or divergent thinking. These include expert manipulation of text and graphics; creative use of colour, animation and effects to convey particular messages; and economic navigation through complex web-based resources (Wheeler et al., 2002). The objective of inquiry-based learning with ICT is to help students to find problems, seek answers, generate solutions, and build their own theories and ideas about the world through
explorations (Zhang, 2002). In addition, ICT contributes to creating learning environments in which students can actively work on solving real problems encountered in daily life (Volman & van Eck, 2001). Goodison (2002) has advised that, if ICT were indeed an effective way of promoting the formal or informal devising of algorithms or strategies, it would be worthwhile to find ways of allowing children to explore software for themselves in a structured supportive environment.
Computers can help students develop their creativity. Creativity is the ability to come up with new ideas that are surprising, yet intelligible, and also valuable in some way (Boden, 2001). Creative thinking involves the representation in meaning derived from a dialogue between children and their work (Loveless, 2000). Examples of creative ICT learning include the development and management of a personal website, personal writing using a wordprocessor, and discovering and adapting to new ways of working and studying using
electronic environments (Wheeler, et al., 2002). Also, the use of hypertext technology has been positively associated with empowering students to do original and creative work (Dreher, 1997).
Teaching children to develop creativity in using ICT also encourages responsibility for learning and self-regulation (Wheeler et al., 2002). Likewise, the way to decrease the opportunity for diffusion of responsibility in collaborative learning with ICT is to have individual accountability (Slavin, 1983). This, major researchers seem to agree, is necessary for effective learning in conventional classrooms (Watson, 1992). Responsibility for learning can be understood as recognition, on the part of the student, of personal individual accountability. This is being accountable for the results of those nominated educational ICT processes or activities presented to and/or initiated on behalf of the individual student for the specific purpose of facilitating the student’s acquisition of knowledge or skills.
Metacognitive awareness is a key element in successful learning (Bransford, Donovan & Pellegrino, 2000). The idea of particular software tools being suited to particular tasks has important implications for the development of students’ metacognitive awareness. For example, the software program Smartboard, promotes quite a sophisticated level of metacognitive reflection (Goodison, 2002). This encourages children to think about their own thinking can enhance the ICT learning process (Wheeler et al., 2002). A major contribution of ICT to the teaching-learning process is found in the ease with which teachers can give
students feedback and with which students can correct their own work. This stimulates students to reflect on their experiences (Volman & van Eck, 2001). The flexibility afforded by an asynchronous web-based environment also supports student reflection (Lockyer et al., 2001; Sung & Ou, 2002).
ICT Learning Outcomes
Many students enjoy using computers and this increases motivation, engagement, and generally enhances the learning experience (Moundridou & Virvou, 2002). Student use of software programs such as kar2ouche (Davies & Birmingham, 2002) and Espresso (Watts, et al., 2001) takes on the appearance of game playing and thereby adds the motivational element of fun to the learning experience. Likewise, software programs provide imagery that appeals to different ages and the different genders provide an additional stimulus towards individual utilization of ICT (Volman & van Eck, 2001). Younger students in particular seem to develop more positive attitudes towards learning as a result of using ICT (Volman & van Eck, 2001).
Improvement in tertiary students’ outlooks has also been noted (Chan et al., 2002; Gardner, Sheridan & White, 2002). Access to ICT in the classroom provides an incentive for learning and engagement. Increased student work output can result from ICT use. Recent studies (Smeets & Mooij, 2001; Tolmie, 2001; Watts, et al., 2001; Zandvliet, 1999) have noted marked student productivity improvements as a direct result of ICT usage. Alternatively, Goodison (2002) found only marginal improvement in student productivity as a result of computer use. One aim of the ImpaCT2 (http://www.becta.org.uk/impact2/) study in the UK was to analyse the relationship between students' use of ICT and their performance in National Tests and GCS examinations. In almost every case, the study found evidence of a positive relationship between ICT use and educational attainment.
Computer use can develop self-efficacy. Self-efficacy determines how much effort an individual will expend towards execution of a behaviour to accomplish a particular outcome, the length of persistence toward goal accomplishment in the face of obstacles, and resilience to failure. Self-efficacy or persistence levels of students, also influence the amount of learning that occurs during computer-based instruction (Hooper, 2003). The cognitive processes that develop self-efficacy require acquisition of knowledge gained through prior
experiences (Cassidy & Eachus, 2002). Learning how to learn thus is not simply a matter of cognitive ability. It is also the self-confidence to face the challenge of learning something new, and the belief in learning as an incremental process (Seltzer & Bentley, 2001). There is a spectrum of confidence in using ICT in the classroom (Watts, et al., 2001). Evidence exists that ICT increases the confidence of lower attaining students (Wheeler, Waite & Bromfield, 2002). However, some studies have shown that girls appear to be less self-confident than boys regarding their computer skills, even when experience is taken into account (Comber, Colley, Hargreaves & Dom, 1997; Volman, 1997; Durndell, Glissov & Siann, 1995; Huber & Schofield, 1998).
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