Constructivism in the classroom

Constructivism’s basic tenet is that people construct or build their own knowledge and meaning as opposed to having it ‘given’ or ‘delivered’ to them. Human learning is constructed and learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This view of learning sharply contrasts with one in which learning and teaching involve the transmission of information from one individual to another, a view in which reception, not construction, is central.

Two important practical points follow: the first is that learners construct new knowledge and understanding using what they already know. There is no empty vessel into which new knowledge is poured: as a result, students come to learning situations with knowledge constructed from previous experience, and that prior knowledge influences the new knowledge they will construct from any future learning experiences. To use the vernacular, learners do it for themselves—it is not something that is done to them (note that constructivism is a view of learning rather than a view of teaching, although certain views of what teaching should be are likely to follow from constructivism).

be challenged—how could it be otherwise, if we are talking about ‘my knowledge’, ‘my interpretation’ or ‘my meaning’? But the idea of constructivism becomes more contentious and radical if it is taken a stage further. If it is argued that all knowledge is ‘in the mind’ or is constructed by the learner then the debate really begins. Would this rule out the idea of shared knowledge and understanding? What about the notion of a ‘body of knowledge’ that has been accumulated over a period of time, e.g. ‘scientific knowledge’?

The philosopher of science, Karl Popper, for example, talked about a kind of ‘third world’ of accumulated knowledge stored in books, libraries and now the Internet, which has some sort of existence outside the human mind. Some versions of radical constructivism can certainly be contested, especially if they lead to a kind of ‘anything goes’ view of knowledge. This is often termed ‘epistemic relativism’. Its basic idea is that any way of knowing is as good as any other—no one form of knowing about the world should be ‘privileged’ above another. Science is no better than astrology.

Equally, one person’s or one group’s knowledge of the world (and their way of knowing and their epistemology) are not superior to that of another person or group. Francis Wheen, who wrote polemically and cynically about ‘how mumbo jumbo is taking over’, sums up ‘epistemic relativism’ with the statement: ‘The world is just a socially constructed “text” about which you can say just about anything you want, provided you say it murkily enough’ (Wheen, 2004).

However, a constructivist approach to learning need not imply a constructivist approach to epistemology (see Solomon, 1994). One of the radical constructivists, Von Glasersfeld (1984), talked in his later writing of constructivism as a theory of knowing rather than knowledge. And the opposite position—the so-called ‘realist’ view—that knowledge is independent of the learner and that knowledge is either true or false depending on whether it corresponds with reality is easily pulled apart. It depends on a naïve view of reality (the idea that something exists ‘out there’, independently); and a correspondence theory of ‘truth’, i.e. that knowledge is only true if it ‘corresponds with’ external reality.

This theory of truth begs the question: how can we know if our knowledge corresponds with reality? Thus, a kind of infinite regress is set up. My own view is that all knowledge must have been constructed by somebody or more realistically by a group of people. Knowledge is not some sort of entity that it is out there, waiting to be collected or discovered (like picking apples). However, this does not imply epistemic relativism, i.e. that all knowledge is of equal worth.

Constructivism in the classroom
One of the key messages for the classroom from constructivist thinking is the (now seemingly obvious) statement that learning requires some mental activity on the part of the learner. Physical activity on its own is not sufficient for ‘active learning’—the learner must be mentally active too—evidence of the first (behavioural activity) does not always imply the presence of the second. For learning to be active, it must lead to restructuring of the learner’s mind (see Piaget on accommodation). This is in contrast to the view of the mind as a tabula rasa onto which knowledge is imprinted. Two other points about learning are, in my view, centrally important for the classroom teacher:

1. New learning depends on the existing knowledge of the learner; meaningful learning must start from this. This implies that teachers need to use some strategy to find out where children are, i.e. eliciting prior knowledge.
2. New learning involves learners in constructing meaning. Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment or the teacher.

Read More : Secondary Education: The Key Concepts (Routledge Key Guides)

Classroom assistants

Classroom assistants (otherwise known as teaching assistants, ‘support staff, ‘teaching support’ and other names) are adults who work alongside teachers in schools, performing different ‘levels’ of task. One of the main rationales for the introduction of classroom/teaching assistants into schools was a general belief that teachers could be relieved of some of their non-teaching duties, thus creating more time for teaching.

A recent study in Scotland shed useful light on the value of classroom assistants, how they are perceived and the way they work alongside teachers (Schlapp et al., 2001). The study found that by 2001, most primary schools had been allocated at least one classroom assistant. Successful appointees were usually women aged between 35 and 44 years, who had previously worked in schools as parent helpers, special needs auxiliaries or playground supervisors. Support for teachers and pupils was usually their main role, but many assistants also undertook some whole-school administrative and supervisory duties. Approximately a quarter of all assistants said they would like to undertake teacher training in three to five years’ time.

The impact of the classroom assistants was reported on in three areas:

1. Pupil attainment: in general, respondents thought that classroom assistants have had an indirect impact on pupils’ attainment by allowing teachers to devote more of their own time to teaching. However, since several new initiatives aimed at raising attainment were occurring at the same time, it was not possible to quantify the specific contribution of classroom assistants to this improvement.
2. The way teachers used their time: classroom assistants in this study were said to have influenced the way teachers use their time. Most teachers who worked with classroom assistants thought that they now had more time to spend on teaching, planning and managing learning. The biggest practical impact was on the amount of time teachers were able to devote to working with individuals and groups of pupils. Teachers’ perceptions also changed: many agreed that they now expected more from their pupils and had more enthusiasm for teaching as a consequence. Teachers also indicated that the presence of classroom assistants allowed them to spend less time preparing resources and doing ‘routine’ tasks such as registration, handling discipline, and pastoral care.
3. Classroom interactions and pupils’ learning experiences: the majority of teachers reported that when a classroom assistant was present pupils spent more time on task and experienced more practical activities and interaction with an adult. Pupils themselves enjoyed working with classroom assistants and appreciated the extra support in the class and elsewhere in school. Pupils were able to distinguish between classroom assistants, whom they saw as ‘helpers’, and teachers.

Generally, across the UK, the introduction of classroom assistants seems to have had a positive effect in schools. It has affected the way teachers work within the classroom, often allowing them more time to devote to teaching. However, in many schools it is still difficult for staff to make or find sufficient time for teachers and classroom assistants to discuss and plan their work together. This collaboration would certainly be of benefit e.g. in joint lesson planning and preparation; in assessment; in achieving differentiation. A few other issues have surfaced as classroom assistants have become more prevalent.

First, the need for recognised training: many assistants have expressed a wish for better training and qualifications. The amount of training provided for classroom assistants has increased considerably. New National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) have been made available for teaching assistants. These are work-based, i.e. they are for staff who are already in post and want to prove they are competent in their work or who wish to raise their level of practice to national standards.

Candidates are assessed mainly through classroom observation and by examining other things they have done (for example, preparation for lessons). In addition, question and answer sessions and projects/assignments are used to test the candidate’s knowledge and understanding of the teaching assistant’s role. These NVQs are designed for staff in schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (slightly different arrangements apply in Scotland). Second, the issue of higher-level teaching assistants.

In 2004, a programme of ‘higherlevel teaching assistants’ (HLTAs) was launched by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA), said to be introduced in recognition of the contribution that support staff can make to pupil attainment. The government of that time proposed to provide every secondary school with at least one HLTA by 2007–2008. These higher-level assistants would be able to take charge of a class and to cover for an absent teacher (in the USA there are four levels of teaching assistant).

There has been some debate between employers of teachers and teacher unions over the role of support staff. Would HLTAs be used to ‘take over’ some of the traditional roles of the fully qualified teacher? Who will actually be in charge of a class? Will HLTAs really be able to cover for absent teachers? One of the main unions (NAS/UWT) welcomed the employment of additional support staff in schools provided that:

• the role and status of qualified teachers were not diluted or undermined;
• HLTAs worked under the direction and supervision of qualified teachers;
• HLTAs were not interchangeable with qualified teachers;
• regulations and guidance were introduced to define the role of support staff, preventing them from being used as substitutes for qualified teachers, to address current inappropriate use of support staff for whole-class activities and to require that HLTAs meet agreed national standards.

Read More : Classroom assistants

HOW GAMES BRING LEARNING TO YOUR CLASSROOM

Games deliver a welcome variation to the tell-and-test classroom format. The games in this blog will make your lessons more enticing and motivate your students to learn more and, more important, enjoy learning more. These games can be adapted very easily to most themes and subjects that your school’s curriculum has outlined.

As an educator, you have goals for yourself, to tap into each child’s zone where he gets excited about learning and has continued moments of success that drive him to undertake further challenges. Students have goals for themselves, too—they want to succeed, they want to do well in school, and they want to learn the best they can.
Games help satisfy everyone’s goals. They keep the curriculum fresh and interesting, which is key to motivating future learning. Here are fourteen ways games bring your curriculum to your audience:
1. Games are experiential. Today’s student needs to do and to try things on her own. These games bring her into direct contact with the topic; she will actively interact with your information wrapped in a game. Games also allow you to observe her realtime behavior.

2. Games allow special tutoring for one or two. On occasion you need to work with only one or two students. Games can be customized with almost any topic and used in the home or classroom for special tutoring sessions. You will find additional tips on how to use each game in this book in the “Teacher’s Notes”
and “Customizing” sections.

3. Games provide choices for your classroom. Educators sometimes feel weighed down by assigned curricula and audiences. Games allow you to add variety and flexibility to your teaching menus. Here is a brief list of your classroom choices with games:
• In-chair or out-of-chair play
• Table, floor, or wall play
• In-class or learning center activities
• Small- or large-group play
• Teacher or student scoring
• In-class or take-home assignments
• Individual or team play
• Introduction or review of material
• Open-book or closed-book play
• Inside or outside play

4. Games reinforce learning. Games give you playful ways to present and represent material to your students. During this play, your students can practice and demonstrate what they have learned from lecture and readings.

5. Games provide immediate feedback. Students want and need feedback on their performance. Games give students immediate feedback on the quality of their input—with appropriate corrective feedback. This can become an invaluable learning opportunity.

6. Games improve test-taking skills. Because of the playful challenge inherent in them, games serve as excellent practice for test taking. They expose students to a variety of question areas and formats, and postgame discussion can focus on testtaking tips from both the teacher and fellow students.

7. Game playing shows that classroom energy is good. Sometimes the educator has to deal with the energy that children bring into the classroom. Using games reinforces the concept that energy is a good thing and that the classroom is a good place to expend energy. In addition, games can bring students’ focus back to the curriculum following active play periods such as recess.

8. Games can introduce new or difficult material. Games have an unparalleled facility to introduce new or difficult material to willing participants. Because the game format is playful, the inherent challenge of new or difficult material is much less threatening than it is ordinarily. During game play the seeming unsolvable question is “just part of the game.” And educators can use the window following a correct response to successfully introduce new information. One method, for example, is to give an in-class assignment on a new reading.
After ten minutes of individual work, bring students into small groups to share their understanding of the material.

9. Games complement reading assignments. Games work very well to complement in-class or at-home reading. Use game sheets as homework guides or use in-class question-and answer sheets.

10. Games improve teamwork. Because games are real-time activities that bring students into teams, they train students in the rules of working together as a team and underscore the value of team collaboration.

11. Games teach playing within the rules. Games continually reinforce the concept that the only way to win is to play within the rules. If an instance of “fair play” or “cheating” is aired, the postgame discussion can deal with issues of cooperation and honesty.

12. Games foster both individual and team achievement. Games underscore the importance of both the individual and the team by giving the student a chance to work alone and then adding the dimension of bringing him into a small group to share ideas.

13. Games reinforce and improve multitasking. Games allow students, individually or in groups, to experience and practice multiskill tasks, such as bouncing a balloon while responding to a series of questions. The pressure created by game play helps build problem-solving skills and promotes creativity.

14. Games can replace drill work. Games can replace the dreaded memorization work required in learning multiplication tables, spelling, and the like. The required repetition can be carried out in a game format. When the students’ attention is focused on the play of the game, memorization becomes less of a chore.
Read More : HOW GAMES BRING LEARNING TO YOUR CLASSROOM

Selecting An Appropriate Game For Your Classroom

Remember, these are your learning games, and they need your customizing in both content and implementation to meet your specific needs in terms of the age, size, and level of your audience. Consider the following information when selecting a game for your learners.

One of the most important considerations is your target audience. Your game must reflect their knowledge, skills, and abilities. Games can evoke powerful learning. It begins when the student, now a player, is challenged with the information that provokes a search for the answer. When the correct answer is aired, the learning is immediately reinforced. This learning transfer happens over and over during the game. This moment of learning is not only powerful but often remains long after the learning event or game has been completed. Three dimensions of your target audience are level of play, number of players, and class size.

Level of Play

As you would expect, game play varies with the age of the audience in terms of the challenge of the material, the complexity of the rules, and the time of play. To assist you in sorting the games for your needs and audience, we have divided the potential audience into three groups with some distinct needs: grades K–2, grades 3–6, and grades 7–8.

• Grades K–2. Learning games for this group should focus on behavioral as well as intellectual skills. Children at this age may still be in the egocentric stage and are just beginning to be introduced to group play. This may make group work a challenge for the young student. Children will learn what games and group play mean overall—that games have winners, contain an element of challenge, and encourage competition. Using teams of fewer than five and simple concepts at the outset of game play allow children to focus on the rules of play. As the concept of a learning game is understood, you can build in additional task complexity.
• Grades 3–6. The focus for this audience continues to be how to work cooperatively in groups, but you can also put more emphasis on course curriculum. With students of this age it is developmentally appropriate to move them into larger teams. At this age students will also become very familiar with the concept of testing. Teachers can use games to teach their students about the content and the format of a test—easing their students into formal testing in a friendly environment.
• Grades 7–8. Learning games for this group can be expanded to familiarize students with written testing procedures, oral and written directions, forming and working in teams, individual and group problem-solving skills, and individual critical thinking skills.

Number of Players
When games are used in the classroom, any number can play. Although many games seem best suited for a small number of players, the intrigue and challenge of play invites the involvement of larger groups of participants. Interaction with the play of the game is vital because it brings your students into active contact with the topic.

Participation in a team is an important element of the game experience it immerses students in a collaborative learning environment. Teams not only present a collective approach to problem solving but also reduce the threat students might feel during a question-and-response period. If an individual responds incorrectly,
she may feel embarrassed or unprepared. If the team responds incorrectly, team members have a mixed experience of both disappointment and discovery. Working in teams also shows players that all learning does not have to come from the teacher.

The size of a good working team varies from two to seven players. Teams usually function better with an odd number of players, such as three, five, or seven. Try to use three-member teams unless the game rules indicate otherwise. Using three players allows all players to get involved in the responses and other aspects of game play.

Size of Class
The size of your class requires you to vary the focus of your control. In smaller groups you will be able to reinforce the topic during presentation of the question-and-response material. The natural energies and distractions of larger classes require more maintenance and direct control.

• Group size of 1 to 2. This very small group requires one-on-one skills from the educator and a game format that can be adapted to one-on-one play. The contest pits the player or players against a preset time or score. Feedback can be tailored to the student either in the form of an immediate score or as a mix of score and tutoring.
• Group size of 3 to 14. This small group allows a casual game atmosphere in which the teacher and students participate at a high level. In a small group there is time to go over each question, reach in-depth closure, and ensure each child understands the material. For a group of three to five players, consider having the students run the group, using the game as a learning center activity.
• Group size of 15 to 25. A medium group requires greater class management skills. The teacher must  decide whether she will run one game for the entire class or break the class into teams for whole-group games—perhaps two to four games for this medium class size. Conducting multiple games requires you to make preparations for the additional activity, disruption, and noise.
• Group size of 26 to 46. A large group presents class management problems that require the teacher to decide whether he needs personnel assistance (other classroom monitors) and to plan room logistics that accommodate all the players. One method might be to divide the students into two sets and run the games in two rounds—in the first round one set of students acts as players and the second set acts as observers, and in the second round the roles are reversed. Again, remember that conducting multiple games requires you to make preparations for the additional activity, disruption, and noise.

Read More : Selecting An Appropriate Game For Your Classroom